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Reticulocytes should comprise approximately 1—2 percent of the erythrocyte count and provide a rough estimate of the rate of RBC production. Abnormally low or high levels of reticulocytes indicates deviations in the production of these...
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[FREE] Chapter 1 Anatomy And Physiology Test Answers | HOT
The biconcave shape also provides a greater surface area across which gas exchange can occur, relative to its volume; a sphere of a similar diameter would have a lower surface area-to-volume ratio. In the capillaries, the oxygen carried by the...
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Anatomy And Physiology Chapter 1 Answers
It also enables them to fold up as they move through narrow blood vessels. Hemoglobin Hemoglobin is a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. It consists of four folded chains of the protein globin, designated alpha 1 and 2, and beta 1 and 2 Figure Each iron ion in the heme can bind to one oxygen molecule, therefore, each hemoglobin molecule can transport four oxygen molecules. An individual erythrocyte may contain about million hemoglobin molecules, and can bind to and transport up to 1. In the lungs, hemoglobin picks up oxygen, which binds to the iron ions, forming oxyhemoglobin. The bright red, oxygenated hemoglobin travels to the capillaries of the body tissues, where it releases some of the oxygen molecules, becoming darker red deoxyhemoglobin. Oxygen release depends on the need for oxygen in the surrounding tissues, so hemoglobin rarely leaves all of its oxygen behind. At the time time, carbon dioxide CO2 enters the bloodstream. About 76 percent of the CO2 dissolves in the plasma, some of it remaining as dissolved CO2, and the remainder forming bicarbonate.
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Chapter 1: Introduction To Anatomy
About 23—24 percent of it binds to the amino acids in hemoglobin, forming a molecule known as carbaminohemoglobin. From the capillaries, the hemoglobin carries CO2 back to the lungs. An overproduction of RBCs produces a condition called polycythemia. The primary drawback with polycythemia is not a failure to deliver enough oxygen to the tissues, but rather the increased viscosity of the blood, which makes it more difficult for the heart to circulate the blood. Ineffective hematopoiesis results in insufficient numbers of RBCs and results in one of several forms of anemia. In patients with insufficient hemoglobin, the tissues may not receive sufficient oxygen, resulting in another form of anemia. The device works by sending two different wavelengths of light one red, the other infrared through the finger and measuring the light with a photodetector as it exits. Hemoglobin absorbs light differentially depending upon its saturation with oxygen. The machine calibrates the amount of light received by the photodetector against the amount absorbed by the partially oxygenated hemoglobin and presents the data as percent saturation.
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Anatomy And Physiology 1 Lab Exam 2 Quizlet
Normal pulse oximeter readings range from 95— percent. Lower percentages reflect hypoxemia, or low blood oxygen. The term hypoxia is more generic and simply refers to low oxygen levels. Oxygen levels are also directly monitored from free oxygen in the plasma typically following an arterial stick. When this method is applied, the amount of oxygen present is expressed in terms of partial pressure of oxygen or simply pO2 and is typically recorded in units of millimeters of mercury, mm Hg. In response to hypoxemia, less oxygen is diffused into the kidney, resulting in hypoxia of the kidney cells where oxygen concentration is actually monitored. Interstitial fibroblasts within the kidney secrete EPO, leading to increased erythrocyte production and eventually restoring oxygen levels. In a negative-feedback loop, as oxygen saturation rises, EPO secretion falls, and vice versa, thereby maintaining homeostasis. Populations dwelling at high elevations, with inherently lower levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, naturally maintain a hematocrit higher than people living at sea level.
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Anatomy And Physiology Chapter 1 Test Answer Key
Consequently, people traveling to high elevations may experience symptoms of hypoxemia, such as fatigue, headache, and shortness of breath, for a few days after their arrival. In response to the hypoxemia, the kidneys secrete EPO to step up the production of erythrocytes until homeostasis is achieved once again. To avoid the symptoms of hypoxemia, or altitude sickness, mountain climbers typically rest for several days to a week or more at a series of camps situated at increasing elevations to allow EPO levels and, consequently, erythrocyte counts to rise.
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Anatomy And Physiology Exam Practice Test!
On average, less than 20 percent of the iron we consume is absorbed. Heme iron, from animal foods such as meat, poultry, and fish, is absorbed more efficiently than non-heme iron from plant foods. The bone marrow, liver, and spleen can store iron in the protein compounds ferritin and hemosiderin. Ferroportin transports the iron across the intestinal cell plasma membranes and from its storage sites into tissue fluid where it enters the blood. When EPO stimulates the production of erythrocytes, iron is released from storage, bound to transferrin, and carried to the red marrow where it attaches to erythrocyte precursors.
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Anatomy And Physiology Questions
Copper: A trace mineral, copper is a component of two plasma proteins, hephaestin and ceruloplasmin. Without these, hemoglobin could not be adequately produced. Located in intestinal villi, hephaestin enables iron to be absorbed by intestinal cells. Ceruloplasmin transports copper. In a state of copper deficiency, the transport of iron for heme synthesis decreases, and iron can accumulate in tissues, where it can eventually lead to organ damage. Zinc: The trace mineral zinc functions as a co-enzyme that facilitates the synthesis of the heme portion of hemoglobin. Thus, both are critical for the synthesis of new cells, including erythrocytes. Degradation: Erythrocytes live up to days in the circulation, after which the worn-out cells are removed by a type of myeloid phagocytic cell called a macrophage, located primarily within the bone marrow, liver, and spleen. Hemoglobin that is not phagocytized is broken down in the circulation, releasing alpha and beta chains that are removed from circulation by the kidneys.
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The iron contained in the heme portion of hemoglobin may be stored in the liver or spleen, primarily in the form of ferritin or hemosiderin, or carried through the bloodstream by transferrin to the red bone marrow for recycling into new erythrocytes. The non-iron portion of heme is degraded into the waste product biliverdin, a green pigment, and then into another waste product, bilirubin, a yellow pigment. Bilirubin binds to albumin and travels in the blood to the liver, which uses it in the manufacture of bile, a compound released into the intestines to help emulsify dietary fats. In the large intestine, bacteria breaks the bilirubin apart from the bile and converts it to urobilinogen and then into stercobilin. It is then eliminated from the body in the feces. Broad-spectrum antibiotics typically eliminate these bacteria as well and may alter the color of feces. The kidneys also remove any circulating bilirubin and other related metabolic byproducts such as urobilins and secrete them into the urine.
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Chapter 1 Introduction To Human Anatomy And Physiology Worksheet Answers
The breakdown pigments formed from the destruction of hemoglobin can be seen in a variety of situations. At the site of an injury, biliverdin from damaged RBCs produces some of the dramatic colors associated with bruising. With a failing liver, bilirubin cannot be removed effectively from circulation and causes the body to assume a yellowish tinge associated with jaundice. Stercobilins within the feces produce the typical brown color associated with this waste. And the yellow of urine is associated with the urobilins. The erythrocyte lifecycle is summarized in Figure At the end of their lifecycle, they are destroyed by macrophages, and their components are recycled. When the number of RBCs or hemoglobin is deficient, the general condition is called anemia. There are more than types of anemia and more than 3. Anemia can be broken down into three major groups: those caused by blood loss, those caused by faulty or decreased RBC production, and those caused by excessive destruction of RBCs.
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Clinicians often use two groupings in diagnosis: The kinetic approach focuses on evaluating the production, destruction, and removal of RBCs, whereas the morphological approach examines the RBCs themselves, paying particular emphasis to their size. A common test is the mean corpuscle volume MCV , which measures size. Normal-sized cells are referred to as normocytic, smaller-than-normal cells are referred to as microcytic, and larger-than-normal cells are referred to as macrocytic. Reticulocyte counts are also important and may reveal inadequate production of RBCs. The effects of the various anemias are widespread, because reduced numbers of RBCs or hemoglobin will result in lower levels of oxygen being delivered to body tissues.
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Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1 & 3 Test
Since oxygen is required for tissue functioning, anemia produces fatigue, lethargy, and an increased risk for infection. An oxygen deficit in the brain impairs the ability to think clearly, and may prompt headaches and irritability. Lack of oxygen leaves the patient short of breath, even as the heart and lungs work harder in response to the deficit. Blood loss anemias are fairly straightforward.
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Chapter 1 & 2: Anatomy & Physiology
In Elementary Biology, you learn that structure, even at the level of molecular biology, is directly tied to function. Anatomy and Physiology classes apply this rule in much greater detail. You gain in-depth knowledge of structures in the Anatomy sections of the course, and you are introduced to the specific implications of these structures in the Physiology section. Instruction in Anatomy often begins by discussing bodily structures including muscles, bones, organs, connective tissues, nerves, and vasculature. You learn the mechanics of these structures, implementing some biophysics material into your understanding of biological structures.
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Hole's Human Anatomy & Physiology (Shier), 12th Edition
It becomes important to understand the mechanical properties of various tissues during the physiological analysis, including force-tension analyses, bone structures, bioelectrical conduction, and other characteristics of muscle, bone, and nerves. In Anatomy, you also need to learn the names and positions of numerous structures, which requires a great deal of memorization. You become familiar with the actions, origins, and insertions of muscles, as well as the various protrusions and contours of the bones.
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Anatomy And Physiology Test 1 Answers
Neuroanatomy is often a point of focus, requiring you to learn both the topical anatomy of the brain and the sub-cortical structures. Neural and muscular anatomy generally compose the majority of Anatomy course content. Anatomy is essentially the foundation from which you can build an understanding of Physiology. Once you are familiar with the orientation of various structures and their integration with one another, you can begin to apply functional significance to these relationships. Physiology focuses on the causes and effects of various bodily functions. Physiological content will often parallel the depth to which anatomical content was previously covered.
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Anatomy And Physiology Chapter 1 Practice Questions Flashcards - 1medicoguia.com
For example, since Anatomy frequently focuses on nerves and muscles, Physiology often pays particular attention to these groups. In Physiology, you learn in-depth mechanisms of action potential propagation and neural regulation, muscle contraction theories and neuromuscular junction mechanics, and the causes of numerous disorders that are linked to the functions of these regions.
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Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1 Review
Most Physiology courses also focus on endocrine mechanisms, since these actions largely affect the function of the rest of the body. Physiology content can vary from the large-scale functions of the body e. It is impossible to cover all physiological mechanisms in a single course, but even introductory Physiology courses address numerous mechanisms that affect different levels of function. Testing and exams in Anatomy and Physiology can include both written exams and laboratory practicals. For written exams, questions are often linked to labeling anatomical diagrams, though exam format can vary greatly by course. Many courses will teach the symptoms or signs of diseases, disorders, or injuries associated with class topics. Be prepared to provide diagnoses of hypothetical conditions or scenarios that may be offered on exams. Laboratory practicals are based on physical models, often dissected organisms. Questions in the practical are often linked to Anatomy, but can also easily cover the function of a pinned organ or the relationship it shares with other structures in the body.
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Each Practice Test consists of ten to twelve Human Anatomy and Physiology questions; you can think of each one as being a little quiz you can use to hone your skills. Each question includes a detailed explanation, so if you miss one, you can figure out where you went wrong. Upon completing a Practice Test, you also receive detailed statistics that allow you to see how well you did in comparison to other test-takers, as well as how long you took to answer each problem. Take one of our many Human Anatomy and Physiology practice tests for a run-through of commonly asked questions. You will receive incredibly detailed scoring results at the end of your Human Anatomy and Physiology practice test to help you identify your strengths and weaknesses. Pick one of our Human Anatomy and Physiology practice tests now and begin!
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Anatomy & Physiology - Introduction
By the end of this section, you will be able to: Distinguish the stages of embryonic development that occur before implantation Describe the process of implantation List and describe four embryonic membranes Explain gastrulation Describe how the placenta is formed and identify its functions Explain how an embryo transforms from a flat disc of cells into a three-dimensional shape resembling a human Summarize the process of organogenesis Throughout this chapter, we will express embryonic and fetal ages in terms of weeks from fertilization, commonly called conception. It can be subdivided into distinct gestational periods. The first 2 weeks of prenatal development are referred to as the pre-embryonic stage. A developing human is referred to as an embryo during weeks 3—8, and a fetus from the ninth week of gestation until birth. By the end of the embryonic period, all of the organ systems are structured in rudimentary form, although the organs themselves are either nonfunctional or only semi-functional.
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Ch. 1 Review Questions - Anatomy And Physiology | OpenStax
Pre-implantation Embryonic Development Following fertilization, the zygote and its associated membranes, together referred to as the conceptus, continue to be projected toward the uterus by peristalsis and beating cilia. During its journey to the uterus, the zygote undergoes five or six rapid mitotic cell divisions. Although each cleavage results in more cells, it does not increase the total volume of the conceptus Figure Approximately 3 days after fertilization, a cell conceptus reaches the uterus. The cells that had been loosely grouped are now compacted and look more like a solid mass. Once inside the uterus, the conceptus floats freely for several more days. It continues to divide, creating a ball of approximately cells, and consuming nutritive endometrial secretions called uterine milk while the uterine lining thickens.
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Chapter 1 Human Anatomy And Physiology Pearson Test Questions
The ball of now tightly bound cells starts to secrete fluid and organize themselves around a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. At this developmental stage, the conceptus is referred to as a blastocyst. Within this structure, a group of cells forms into an inner cell mass, which is fated to become the embryo. These cells will develop into the chorionic sac and the fetal portion of the placenta the organ of nutrient, waste, and gas exchange between mother and the developing offspring.
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The inner mass of embryonic cells is totipotent during this stage, meaning that each cell has the potential to differentiate into any cell type in the human body. Figure As the blastocyst forms, the trophoblast excretes enzymes that begin to degrade the zona pellucida. External Website View this time-lapse movie of a conceptus starting at day 3. What is the first structure you see? At what point in the movie does the blastocoel first appear? What event occurs at the end of the movie? Implantation At the end of the first week, the blastocyst comes in contact with the uterine wall and adheres to it, embedding itself in the uterine lining via the trophoblast cells. Thus begins the process of implantation, which signals the end of the pre-embryonic stage of development Figure Implantation can be accompanied by minor bleeding. The blastocyst typically implants in the fundus of the uterus or on the posterior wall. However, if the endometrium is not fully developed and ready to receive the blastocyst, the blastocyst will detach and find a better spot.
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A significant percentage 50—75 percent of blastocysts fail to implant; when this occurs, the blastocyst is shed with the endometrium during menses. The high rate of implantation failure is one reason why pregnancy typically requires several ovulation cycles to achieve. When implantation succeeds and the blastocyst adheres to the endometrium, the superficial cells of the trophoblast fuse with each other, forming the syncytiotrophoblast, a multinucleated body that digests endometrial cells to firmly secure the blastocyst to the uterine wall. In response, the uterine mucosa rebuilds itself and envelops the blastocyst Figure The trophoblast secretes human chorionic gonadotropin hCG , a hormone that directs the corpus luteum to survive, enlarge, and continue producing progesterone and estrogen to suppress menses.
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Heart Anatomy | Anatomy And Physiology II
These functions of hCG are necessary for creating an environment suitable for the developing embryo. As a result of this increased production, hCG accumulates in the maternal bloodstream and is excreted in the urine. Implantation is complete by the middle of the second week. Just a few days after implantation, the trophoblast has secreted enough hCG for an at-home urine pregnancy test to give a positive result. Most of the time an embryo implants within the body of the uterus in a location that can support growth and development.
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However, in one to two percent of cases, the embryo implants either outside the uterus an ectopic pregnancy or in a region of uterus that can create complications for the pregnancy. If the embryo implants in the inferior portion of the uterus, the placenta can potentially grow over the opening of the cervix, a condition call placenta previa. Disorders of the… Development of the Embryo In the vast majority of ectopic pregnancies, the embryo does not complete its journey to the uterus and implants in the uterine tube, referred to as a tubal pregnancy. Tubal pregnancies can be caused by scar tissue within the tube following a sexually transmitted bacterial infection. Approximately one half of tubal pregnancies resolve spontaneously.
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Free Human Anatomy And Physiology Diagnostic Tests
Implantation in a uterine tube causes bleeding, which appears to stimulate smooth muscle contractions and expulsion of the embryo. In the remaining cases, medical or surgical intervention is necessary. If diagnosis is late and the uterine tube is already ruptured, surgical repair is essential. Even if the embryo has successfully found its way to the uterus, it does not always implant in an optimal location the fundus or the posterior wall of the uterus. Placenta previa can result if an embryo implants close to the internal os of the uterus the internal opening of the cervix. As the fetus grows, the placenta can partially or completely cover the opening of the cervix Figure Although it occurs in only 0. Embryonic Membranes During the second week of development, with the embryo implanted in the uterus, cells within the blastocyst start to organize into layers. Some grow to form the extra-embryonic membranes needed to support and protect the growing embryo: the amnion, the yolk sac, the allantois, and the chorion.
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At the beginning of the second week, the cells of the inner cell mass form into a two-layered disc of embryonic cells, and a space—the amniotic cavity—opens up between it and the trophoblast Figure Cells from the upper layer of the disc the epiblast extend around the amniotic cavity, creating a membranous sac that forms into the amnion by the end of the second week. The amnion fills with amniotic fluid and eventually grows to surround the embryo. Early in development, amniotic fluid consists almost entirely of a filtrate of maternal plasma, but as the kidneys of the fetus begin to function at approximately the eighth week, they add urine to the volume of amniotic fluid.
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Floating within the amniotic fluid, the embryo—and later, the fetus—is protected from trauma and rapid temperature changes. It can move freely within the fluid and can prepare for swallowing and breathing out of the uterus. On the ventral side of the embryonic disc, opposite the amnion, cells in the lower layer of the embryonic disk the hypoblast extend into the blastocyst cavity and form a yolk sac. The yolk sac supplies some nutrients absorbed from the trophoblast and also provides primitive blood circulation to the developing embryo for the second and third week of development. When the placenta takes over nourishing the embryo at approximately week 4, the yolk sac has been greatly reduced in size and its main function is to serve as the source of blood cells and germ cells cells that will give rise to gametes.
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An Introduction To Anatomy And Physiology Chapter 1 Answers Links:
During week 3, a finger-like outpocketing of the yolk sac develops into the allantois, a primitive excretory duct of the embryo that will become part of the urinary bladder. Together, the stalks of the yolk sac and allantois establish the outer structure of the umbilical cord. The last of the extra-embryonic membranes is the chorion, which is the one membrane that surrounds all others. The development of the chorion will be discussed in more detail shortly, as it relates to the growth and development of the placenta. Embryogenesis As the third week of development begins, the two-layered disc of cells becomes a three-layered disc through the process of gastrulation, during which the cells transition from totipotency to multipotency. The embryo, which takes the shape of an oval-shaped disc, forms an indentation called the primitive streak along the dorsal surface of the epiblast.
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Cells migrate toward and through the primitive streak and then move laterally to create two new layers of cells. The first layer is the endoderm, a sheet of cells that displaces the hypoblast and lies adjacent to the yolk sac. The second layer of cells fills in as the middle layer, or mesoderm. The cells of the epiblast that remain not having migrated through the primitive streak become the ectoderm Figure The embryo at this stage is only a few millimeters in length. Each of these germ layers will develop into specific structures in the embryo.
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17.1 An Overview Of The Endocrine System
Whereas the ectoderm and endoderm form tightly connected epithelial sheets, the mesodermal cells are less organized and exist as a loosely connected cell community. The ectoderm gives rise to cell lineages that differentiate to become the central and peripheral nervous systems, sensory organs, epidermis, hair, and nails. Mesodermal cells ultimately become the skeleton, muscles, connective tissue, heart, blood vessels, and kidneys.
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The endoderm goes on to form the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and pancreas, as well as the lungs Figure Development of the Placenta During the first several weeks of development, the cells of the endometrium—referred to as decidual cells—nourish the nascent embryo. During prenatal weeks 4—12, the developing placenta gradually takes over the role of feeding the embryo, and the decidual cells are no longer needed. The mature placenta is composed of tissues derived from the embryo, as well as maternal tissues of the endometrium.
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Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1 Review Flashcards - 1medicoguia.com
The placenta connects to the conceptus via the umbilical cord, which carries deoxygenated blood and wastes from the fetus through two umbilical arteries; nutrients and oxygen are carried from the mother to the fetus through the single umbilical vein. The maternal portion of the placenta develops from the deepest layer of the endometrium, the decidua basalis. To form the embryonic portion of the placenta, the syncytiotrophoblast and the underlying cells of the trophoblast cytotrophoblast cells begin to proliferate along with a layer of extraembryonic mesoderm cells. These form the chorionic membrane, which envelops the entire conceptus as the chorion. The chorionic membrane forms finger-like structures called chorionic villi that burrow into the endometrium like tree roots, making up the fetal portion of the placenta. The cytotrophoblast cells perforate the chorionic villi, burrow farther into the endometrium, and remodel maternal blood vessels to augment maternal blood flow surrounding the villi.
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Meanwhile, fetal mesenchymal cells derived from the mesoderm fill the villi and differentiate into blood vessels, including the three umbilical blood vessels that connect the embryo to the developing placenta Figure The placenta develops throughout the embryonic period and during the first several weeks of the fetal period; placentation is complete by weeks 14— As a fully developed organ, the placenta provides nutrition and excretion, respiration, and endocrine function Table It receives blood from the fetus through the umbilical arteries. Capillaries in the chorionic villi filter fetal wastes out of the blood and return clean, oxygenated blood to the fetus through the umbilical vein.
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